Story of the Concorde

On July 25th, 2000, flight 4590 crashed. It was the first, and only, crash of the famed Concorde. Eventually, it would lead to retirement for the amazing aircraft. Investigators spent countless hours poring over the wreckage, and placed blame on a piece of runway debris that slashed the tire. A piece of that tire struck one of the fuel tanks, causing it to rupture and the plane caught fire. Case closed, right? Not so fast.

Surely a small piece of runway debris shouldn’t bring down a commercial airliner! As it turns out, there is quite a bit of contention among experts surrounding other factors that may have contributed to the crash. Some argue that it was a complex chain of events, all coming together, that brought down the aircraft. The plane was missing a spacer between the two wheels, had too much fuel in the tank, attempted to takeoff in unstable conditions, and was overweight. The flight was also delayed, causing angst among the flight crew. Finally, a required daily runway inspection was not performed.

Perhaps, if the runway inspection had been performed, the piece of debris would have been spotted. Or had the aircraft not been overfueled, the piece of tire may not have caused an increase in fuel tank pressure that some say caused the tank to burst. Had the spacer been installed, it’s possible the tire would have never burst. A series of small events, each contributing in their own way, to the fatal crash.

No Matter How Small

The story reminds me of the importance of attention to detail in software development. Of how the aggregate of all of the small, seemingly insignificant decisions we make on a continuous basis can have long-term consequences on the future of the software system. Possibly even your organization. Every time you design a class, define a variable, write a test, create a package, build a module, modify a method, or make a design decision, you are affecting the future of your system in some unsuspecting way.

What may seem insignificant today, can have a detrimental affect tomorrow. Really, there are no small, insignificant decisions in software development. I’m reminded of how important it is to make conscious decisions that are given careful thought, no matter how small. It also reminded me of a poem on build automation and continuous integration that I read a while back on the Test Early blog.

FOR WANT OF A BUILD

For want of a build, a test case was not executed
For want of test case, a defect was not detected
For want of a defect report, a bad release was promoted
For want of a good release, a strategic customer was lost
For want of a customer, a development team was reduced
For want of developers, a product stagnated
For want of a product, a company was lost
And all for the want of a build…

I’ve spent some time thinking a bit more deeply about a few of my recent posts on software architecture, and have come to the following revelation.

Architects architect architecture!

Don’t let the triviality of this statement undermine its depth. While each of the three words are variations of the same thing, each have different contextual meaning. Let’s tease the statement apart to see what I mean.

• Architects - Humans create software architecture, and for architecture to be effective, we must also be able to understand the architecture. In Eliminate Architecture, I cited a definition of architecture that introduces the social dimension. Architects signify the social pillar.
• Architect - The way we arrive at architecture is through some process or series of steps. We might create diagrams or software architecture documents. We might write a little code (proofs, spikes, prototypes) to determine the viability of architecture. There are many different activities we perform as we create the architecture. Architect signifies the process pillar.
• Architecture - In Modularity and Architecture, I offered up a few industry definitions of architecture. Common keywords that span definitions include components, composition, interfaces, subsystems, and structure. Architecture signifies the technology pillar.

To ensure balance, we must give attention to each of the three pillars. Additionally, each pillar is related to the other. For instance, ignoring the social pillar impacts the other two in unexpected ways.

The Social Pillar

Turtles and Architecture generally focused on the social pillar of software architecture, but also talked a bit about how the technology pillar can increase understanding, visibility, and transparency. The general sentiment is that architects must focus on more than just concepts and developers must focus on more than just code. There is a middle ground that demands attention, as well.

I used a visual similar to what’s at right (click to enlarge) to illustrate the middle ground. It also illustrates how aspects of the technology pillar can help increase understanding and transparency of architecture. Increased understanding of the architecture hopefully leads to improved structural quality (technology pillar) and transparency of the process (process pillar).

The Technology Pillar

Architecture All the Way Down primarily focused on the technology pillar. The visual at right (click to enlarge) illustrates this view. Again, we see the huge gap that exists if we fail to emphasize the importance of modularity. The rightmost portion illustrates how modularity fills the gap - architecture all the way down. Of course, other gaps are also created if we ignore any of the other aspects, such as class design. Note that as we move from services to modules to packages and classes, we increase the granularity along the way. Our classes should not be as fine-grained as our modules, nor our modules as fine-grained as our services.

Additionally, each entity solves a different type of problem (or provides a different type of advantage), as illustrated by the bars at the bottom. All are units of composition, but only services and modules are units of deployment. Services are reused through distributed computing, whereas module reuse is constrained by process boundaries. The technology pillar affects the other pillars. An inflexible rigid architecture makes it difficult for people to understand and communicate (social pillar) and inhibits how quickly we’re able to respond to change (process pillar).

The Process Pillar

The process pillar is one that I’ve not spent much time discussing. Certainly, it’s important though, and includes various aspects like deferring commitment to significant architectural decisions, evolutionary and emergent architecture, and reversibility. The visual at right illustrates the process pillar (click to enlarge). It’s not as descriptive as the other diagrams, I admit.  Anyone have something better that illustrates the process pillar?

I did talk a little about these ideas in Agile Architecture, Lean Principles. But certainly more needs to be fleshed out surrounding the process pillar. This tends to be where most spend their time when discussing agile architecture, but the other pillars are certainly important. The process pillar affects the other pillars. A bad process accompanied by bad practices results in an inflexible architecture (technology pillar) that noone is able to understand (social pillar).

For those that follow this blog, but not the APS blog, I’ve just published a synopsis of modularity on the Java platform. With a lot of momentum continuing to build around OSGi, we’re still in a state of limbo surrounding a standard module system on the Java platform. Some might argue that OSGi has already won - it is the defacto standard module system. Possibly.

Oracle has offered us very little direction on their future plans. There was little fanfare surrounding WebLogic dm Server, with only sparse references and no official word from Oracle. I’m hopeful we can expect to hear some news of the direction they intend to take in their upcoming webcast, though I’m not expecting them to make any significant statements at such a fine level of technical detail. Coincidentally, Apple is holding their own event that very same day, and is expected to announce their new tablet. Let your imagination run wild. Those two events should make for a very exciting day.

Regardless, I’ve had quite a few conversations over the past several months surrounding modularity and OSGi. I have my suspicions on Oracle’s intent, though am reticent to share at this time. Read the APS post titled, Java Modularity - Time to Set Sail.

I’ve been thinking a bit more about the list of disruptive technologies on Richard’s list, and then I watched Dan Pink’s TED talk on the surprising science of motivation. There must be some relationship between the list, which is comprised of almost all open source software products, and Dan’s assertion that the 20th century reward system won’t work for the cognitive tasks performed by workers in the 21st century. What is it, though?

We develop open source software to scratch a personal itch, ease the pain in performing a certain type of task, or create a more compelling alternative to a commercial product. While the professional open source model has emerged the last few years as a way for the open source community to create a sustainable business model, none of the open source technologies on the list were initially developed that way. They were developed in response to need. Ant because Java lacked a good build system. Spring because Java EE was cumbersome and bloated. JUnit to help increase quality. In many cases, these tools have grown to become defacto standard technologies widely used by enterprise development teams.

In Dan’s mind, the new incentive program within organizations must revolve around three things - autonomy, opportunity, and purpose. We must be given autonomy, or the empowerment to make our own decisions. We must be given the opportunity to master something that matters to us. And we must be given purpose, which is the desire to do what we do in the service of something larger than ourselves. Dan notes that financial incentive is also important, but is not the decisive factor in what motivates us.

There are a lot of ways to connect the dots between the open source products so prevalent on Richard’s list and Dan’s point about incentives. I’ll allow you the opportunity to connect these dots any way you wish. A few that immediately come to mind for me include the way commercial software is sold, corporate incentive programs, empowering developers, and flaws in corporate culture. But here’s something else to chew on.

In most of the cases, it was the developer who spurred adoption of the most disruptive application development technologies of the last decade. We weren’t motivated to develop or adopt these great products because of financial incentive or a reward system. Sure, in some cases that’s a positive side affect, but it is not the force that motivates. Instead, we were motivated because they make our jobs a little bit easier and our software a little bit better.

Developers are fighting like hell to create better software. While a lot of commercial vendors are selling shelfware (they aren’t selling it to the developer, mind you), developers are driving adoption of the technologies that are making a difference. Developers seek autonomy,  opportunity, and purpose. Given corporate culture, it’s not always easy to find. But if the last decade is any indication, we are finding it, developers do have a voice, and that voice is being heard.

Tight coupling between modules is a bad idea, and the worst form of coupling is cyclic dependencies between modules. Fortunately, there are a few techniques we can use to break the cycles. They are Callback, Escalation, and Demotion, and I’m going to walk through some examples that show each of them in action.

Then, once the dependencies are broken, we’ll look at two more techniques that allow us to invert and eliminate the relationship altogether. The code for each of the samples can be found in the edcie project on my Google code repository. Each example includes a build script and a simple test case. To execute them though, you’ll need GraphViz if you want to use JarAnalyzer. To invoke the build scripts without invoking JarAnalyzer, you can simply type:

ant compile

Keep in mind that each variation of the system has the exact same behavior!

The Example

The example we’re going to use to drive the remainder of our discussion is incredibly simple. We’ve got a Customer and a Bill class that we’re going to bundle into two separate modules - cust.jar and bill.jar. There’s also a test case called PaymentTest that serves as a sample client to drive the interactions between the two classes. The test case is bundled into the billtest.jar module. The initial class diagram is seen at right. Note the bi-directional relationship between the two classes.

As we progress, we’ll add more classes and abstractions to the system to help increase the modularity. Additionally, we’re going to use JarAnalyzer to illustrate the relationships between the modules and also help us assess the quality of our design. The module structure is below, as generated by JarAnalyzer. You can see how to use JarAnalyzer in the build by reviewing the build file. Again, our goal is to break the cyclic dependency between cust.jar and bill.jar, and we’re going to look at three different ways to do this before moving on to examine different ways to massage acyclic module relationships.

Initial Module Structure with Cyclic Dependencies

Escalation

The first technique we’re going to apply is called Escalation. With Escalation, we break the cyclic dependencies by escalating the cause of the dependency to a higher level entity. Before we do that, we need to more fully understand why a cyclic dependency exists in this example. This reason follows:

A Customer has a list of Bill instances. When the pay method on Bill is invoked, the Bill needs to determine if a discount should be applied. The discount is a product of the Customer the bill belongs to, not necessarily the Bill. Therefore, the Bill class calls a method on Customer to determine the appropriate discount amount. Think of it this way…The Customer represents a payee and we negotiate a discount with each payee. The calculation of this discounted amount is encapsulated within the Customer.

To break this dependency, we want to escalate the cause of the dependency up to a higher level class - the CustomerMediator. The mediator now encapsulates calculation of the discount and passes that to the bill class. The best way to see this change is to look at the modified PaymentTest class. Now, I’ve modified the build script and have bundled the mediator into it’s own module, as shown below. If you dig a bit more deeply into the class structure, you’ll wonder why I didn’t just pass the discount amount from Customer into Bill. Don’t worry about that. This example is slightly contrived because escalation isn’t the best way to solve this type of problem. The key takeaway is that we’ve escalated the dependency up to the mediator.jar bundle, breaking the cyclic dependency.

Escalating the Cause of the Cyclic Dependency

Demotion

A slightly better way to solve this particular type of cyclic dependency (where we have a true composite relationship between Customer and Bill) is to use demotion. With demotion, we push the cause of the dependency to a lower level module. Exactly the opposite of escalation. We do this by introducing a DiscountCalculator class that will be passed into the Bill class. Our modified PaymentTest class will create the calculator and pass it in for us. The Customer class will serve as the factory for the DiscountCalculator, since it’s the Customer that knows the discount that must be applied. The new class structure can be seen at right.

Now we’ll modify our build script to create an additional calc.jar bundle which will contain the DiscountCalculator class. Our resulting module structure is shown below.

Demoting the Cause of the Cyclic Dependency

Already you can see how this is a more natural solution than escalation for this particular type of cyclic dependency problem.  What’s the key difference you might ask? With escalation, notice how I would be able to deploy the cust.jar and bill.jar modules independently. While demotion is a more natural solution in this situation, it also means that to deploy bill.jar or cust.jar, I must also deploy calc.jar. The right solution is always going to be contextual and the ideal solution is likely to shift throughout the development lifecycle.

Callback

Using a Callback is similar to the Observer pattern. With this approach, we’ll refactor our DiscountCalculator class to an interface, and then modify the Customer class to implement this interface. This new class structure can be seen at right.

As it happens in this specific situation, using a Callback represents a combination of demotion and our initial solution. We’ll go back to passing the Customer into the Bill, but will pass it in as a DiscountCalculator type. Whereas in the Demotion example we bundled the DiscountCalculator in a separate module, we’ll now just include it in our bill.jar module. Note that putting the DiscountCalculator in the cust.jar module would introduce the cyclic dependency we’re trying to get rid of. The new module structure, which resembles our original version minus the cyclic dependency, is shown below.

Using a Callback to Eliminate the Cyclic Dependency

Inverting Relationships

Now we’re going to play around a bit with the module relationships. While Callback seems like the most logical solution, what if we wanted to use the cust.jar module without the bill.jar module? Callback, as it’s implemented, doesn’t allow us to do this. But with a bit of trickery, I can actually invert the relationship between the cust.jar and bill.jar modules.

I start by refactoring the Bill class to an interface. Then, to avoid split packages (where classes in the same package are bundled into separate modules), I move the Bill class into the same package as the Customer class. The new class diagram is shown at right, and the inverted module structure is shown below.

Inverted Module Structure

Eliminating Relationships

Inverting the relationships allows us to deploy the cust.jar module independent of the bill.jar module. Again, it’s all about need. But I’d like to explore another option based on another important need - the ability to test modules independently. Before inverting the relationships, I am able to test the bill.jar module independently. After inverting the relationships, I can test the cust.jar module independently. But what if I want to test (or deploy) both modules independently? To do this, I need to completely eliminate the relationship altogether.

As it turns out, because I’ve got a pretty flexible class structure after I inverted the relationships (lot’s of abstract coupling), I can do this by simply bundling the two interfaces - Bill and DiscountCalculator - into a separate module. No other coding changes required. I start by moving them to a new package called base. Then, I modify my build script to bundle these two interfaces into a separate base.jar module, and we have successfully eliminated the relationship between the bill.jar and cust.jar modules, as shown below.

Eliminating Relationships Between Modules

Wrapping Up

We’ve come a long ways from our original version of the system. Two modules with a cyclic relationship to a module structure where the original modules don’t have any relationship to each other. This means these modules can be tested and deployed independently. If you follow this blog, you know I’ve written plenty about the tradeoffs between flexibility and complexity, use and reuse, and many other architectural and design challenges. I hope this little exercise has helped drive some of those concepts home.

As a final note, to explore some of these design decisions a bit more deeply, and to examine the tradeoffs a bit more objectively, I encourage you to run the builds for each of the projects and examine the dependencies.html file in the stats directory. To do this, you’ll need to make sure JarAnalyzer is executed, which requires GraphViz. As you’ll see when comparing the initial version to the final version, we made considerable progress in improving the quality of the design.

2010 is going to be a big year for modularity on the Java platform. So based on recent industry trends, and as momentum continues to build around modularity on the Java platform:

I hereby officially declare 2010 as the year of modularity on the Java platform.

So that’s a relatively silly statement, and I really don’t have any authority to make such sweeping declarations. But the statement is backed by some pretty serious trends. Here are a few nuggets to chew on that has led me to believe modularity is going to be bigger in 2010 than ever before!

Between 2007 and 2009, we saw amazing momentum build around OSGi. GlassFish, Jetty, Spring DM, SpringSource dm Server, Paremus Service Fabric, Nimble, PAX, Sigil, Aries, WebSphere, JBoss, Maven, and of course Eclipse are just a few products that leverage OSGi. The list goes on. The number of 3rd party frameworks that have been “osgi-ified” has also grown substantially. And whether you love it or hate it, let’s not forget about Jigsaw and JSR-294.

But there has been a nagging problem…an elephant in the room you might say…that’s hindered widespread adoption. Without gluing together a platform, assembling it yourself, or adopting an entirely new platform, aside from the vendors who were already exposing the virtues of OSGi in their products, the majority of enterprise developers were unable to leverage any of it to build modular enterprise applications! But in 2010, that’s all going to change.

Modularity is coming to the enterprise and you’re going to be able to use it to build modular applications. IBM has already made this announcement. I suspect others will follow suit. For those using SpringSource dm Server or Infiniflow, you’re probably already doing it. With the major platform vendors showing their support for a technology that’s already embedded in products such as dm Server and Infiniflow, I suspect these platforms will see an increase in market penetration through 2010 and beyond. And I suspect you can expect some big announcements surrounding these products soon. Finally, let’s not forget, if it can avoid another delay, JDK 7 (with support for modularity) will be released in September.

Whereas prior to 2010, enterprise developers could only dream about building modular applications (or work very hard to do so), modularity is going to take center stage. And since modularity lies at the heart of the platform, it doesn’t matter what language you use. Neil showed us how to do it with Scala way back in 2007. And Groovy does OSGi, as does Clojure. Yep, so does Scala. So no matter which language you use, you’ll be able to take advantage of modularity on the Java platform.

In 2010 modularity on the Java platform is going to be a game changer…a disruptor…that reaches from the developer to the data center. As 2010 progresses, more and more developers will be touched by modularity. It’s not something we should ignore. Really, it’s not something we can ignore anymore.

Thanks

This is my last post of the year, and I want to take a moment to thank everyone that spends their precious time reading my long-winded entries. In 2009, I saw a four fold increase in blog traffic over 2008, and December 2009 saw a five fold increase in traffic over January 2009. Out of a total of 74 posts this year, more than half were related to modularity. I’d like to think the increase in traffic is related to the topics I’ve been writing about. Modularity is something that folks are interested in. But we still have a ways to go.

Future of Modularity

Interestingly, I was speaking to a conference organizer yesterday, and I sensed his mild surprise when I began to talk about modularity. He noted that modularity is certainly not a new concept. I agreed. It’s an idea that has been around since at least the early 1970’s when David Parnas published his essay. But things are different now. Until recently, modularity was not a first class concept on the Java platform. If we wanted to develop software with a modular architecture, we were required to do so without much framework or platform support. In fact, we hadn’t even identified any standard definition of module on the platform.

That’s changing. As the application platform vendors continue to bake OSGi into their products, it’s clear that a module is a JAR file and there’s a framework to back it up. In 2010 modularity on the Java platform will gain considerable visibility in our industry. The stackless stack is coming to fruition, and it’s a game changer…a disruptor…that reaches from the developer to the data center. It’s not something we should ignore. Really, it’s not something we can ignore anymore.  So, as we close out one decade and usher in another, modularity will celebrate at least its 40th birthday. Maybe we’re finally starting to get it.

All Posts Page

A final note before closing out 2009. For those interested, I’ve created a custom Wordpress page that shows a summary of all posts published on this blog. Enjoy!

I’m excited to be given the opportunity to present the keynote at OSGi DevCon London on February 23, 2010. The event is hosted in conjunction with JAX London. The sessions for the conference look great, with a great lineup of speakers and 15 sessions, including two in-depth tutorials by Neil Bartlett and Peter Kriens, devoted exclusively to OSGi.

Here’s the abstract for my session titled OSGi in the Enterprise: Agility, Modularity, and Architecture’s Paradox.

Attempts to architect more flexible software often results in the opposite - brittle software fraught with complexity. Something is missing. Complexity is the beast we must tame, and modularity is part of the answer. In this keynote, we’ll examine the challenges of traditional approaches to software architecture, probe the paradox of architecture, and explore the inextricable link between structural and temporal architectural decisions. From the highest level applications and services to the code that exists in the bowels of the system, we expose the advantages of a modular architecture. Come learn new ways that large software systems can be organized to increase flexibility, reusability, adaptability, maintainability, testability, and extensibility. Come discover the importance of OSGi in the Enterprise.

Yes, come discover the important of OSGi in the Enterprise!

Note: This is a re-post, with slight modifications, from an entry in October 2007. And now, two years later, we’re just about there! For the abridged version of this post, focus on the text in bold. You can see the original version here.

Design Rot

We’ve all experienced that sinking feeling when maintaining a piece of crappy software. Has my change broken the system in some unintended way? What is the ramification of my change on other parts of the system? If you’re lucky, and the system has a robust suite of unit tests, they can offer some support in proving your work. In practice, however, few systems have thorough automated test coverage. Mostly we’re alone, left to verify our changes as best as possible. We might privately criticize the original developers for creating such garbage. It certainly lends a plausble excuse in explaining why the maintenance effort is so costly or time-consuming. Or it might serve as the basis upon which we recommend a re-write. But mostly, we should wonder how it happened.

For sure, most software doesn’t start out this way. Most software starts out clean, with a clear design strategy. But as the system grows over time, strange things begin to happen. Business rules change. Deadline pressures mount. Test coverage slips. Refactoring is a forgotten luxury. And the inherent flaws present in every initial design begin to surface. Reality has proven that few enterprise development teams have the time or resources to fix a broken design. More often, we are left to work within the constraints of the original design. As change continues, our compromises exacerbate the problem. The consequence of rotting design is seen throughout the enterprise on a daily basis. Most apparent is the affect on software maintenance. But rotting design leads to buggy software and performance degradation, as well. Over time, at least a portion of every enterprise software system experiences the problem of rotting design. A quote from Brook’s sums it well:

All repairs tend to destroy the structure, to increase the entropy and disorder of the system. Less and less effort is spent on fixing the original design flaws; more and more is spent on fixing flaws introduced by earlier fixes. As time passes, the system becomes less and less well-ordered. Sooner or later the fixing ceases to gain any ground. Each forward step is matched by a backward one. Although in principle usable forever, the system has worn out as a base for progress.

The most obvious question is, “How do we prevent rotting design?” Unfortunately, rotting design is not preventable, only reducable. Of the past ten years, the design patterns movement has provided insight to the qualities of good design. Dissecting design patterns reveals many important design principles that contribute to more resilient software design. Favor object composition over class inheritance, and program to an interface, not an implementation, are two examples. Of the 23 patterns in the GOF book, all adhere to these fundamental statements. Alone however, design patterns that emphasize class structure are not enough to help reduce rotting design.

Reducing Rot

Most patterns emphasize class design, and present techniques that can be used in specific contexts to minimize dependencies between classes. Teasing apart the underlying goal of most patterns shows us that each aim to manage the dependencies between classes through abstract coupling. Conceptually, classes with the fewest dependencies are highly reusable, extensible, and testable. The greatest influence in reducing design rot is minimizing unnecessary dependencies. Yet enterprise development involves creating many more entities beyond only classes. Teams must define the package structure in which those classes live, and the module structure in which they are deployed. Increasing the survivability of your design involves managing dependencies between all software entities - classes, packages, and modules.

But if minimal dependencies were the only traits of great design, developers would lean towards creating very heavy, self-contained software entities with a rich API. While these entities might have minimal dependencies, extreme attempts to minimize dependencies results in excessive redundancy across entities with each providing its own built-in implementation of common behavior. Ironically, avoiding redundant implementations, thereby maximizing reuse, requires that we delegate to external entities, increasing dependencies. Attempts to maximize reuse results in excessive dependencies and attempts to minimize dependencies results in excessive redundancy. Neither is ideal, and a gentle balance must be sought when defining the behavior, or granularity, of all software entities - classes, packages, and modules. For more on the use/reuse paradox, see Reuse: Is the Dream Dead?

Software design is in a constant quandary. Any single element key to crafting great designs, if taken to its individual extreme, results in directly the opposite - a brittle design. The essential complexity surrounding design is different for every software development effort. The ideal design for a software system is always the product of it’s current set of behavioral specifications. As behavior changes, so too must the granularity of the software entities and the dependencies between them. The most successful designs are not characterized by their initial brilliance, but instead through their ability to withstand the test, and evolve over the course, of time. As the complexity of software design is an essential complexity surrounding software development, our hopes lie with technologies and principles that help increase the ability of your design to survive. Such is the reason why agile architecture is so important.

A Promising Future

I’m hopeful that all software developers have experienced the pleasure of a design that, through the course of time, has withstood the test of time. Unfortunately, many enterprise development teams have too few of these experiences. Likewise, few enterprise development teams devote adequate effort to package and module design. It’s unreasonable to believe that even the most flexible class structure can survive should the higher level software entities containing those classes not exhibit similarily flexible qualities. The problems are rampant. Increased dependencies between packages and modules inhibit reusability, hinder maintenance, prevent extensibility, restrict testability, and limit a developer’s ability to understand the ramification of change.

Services offer some promise to remedy our failures with object-oriented development. Yet, while services may offer tangible business value, within each awaits a rotting design. There exists a world between class design and web services that deserves more exploration, and as an industry, we are beginning to notice. OSGi is a proven module system for the Java platform, while Jigsaw aims to modularize the JDK. JSR-294 aims to improve modularity on the Java platform. While some friction might exist between the constituencies involved, it’s only because they too recognize that something has been missing, and are passionate about fixing the problem. Of course, it doesn’t stop there. A plethora of application servers and tools are also including support for modularity using OSGi, which has grown into the defacto standard module system on the Java platform.

All aim to help manage the complexity, from design through deployment, of enterprise software development. With each, new practices, heuristics, and patterns will emerge that increase the ability of a design to grow and adapt.

Certainly, there are many landmark books in software development that have shaped our industry. Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software (the GOF book) is one really good example. Unfortunately, a good share of people don’t have the opportunity to read some of these great works because, well…it can get expensive pretty quickly stocking a bookshelf. But there exists a treasure trove of published content available online that is equally impactful. Here, in no particular order, are 5 essays that have helped shaped our industry, for better or worse.

• Cathedral and the Bazaar by Eric Raymond - Discusses the evolution of Linux and provides amazing insight to lessons learned.
• Code as Design by Jack Reeves - Presents the notion that programming is fundamentally a design activity and that the only final and true representation of “the design” is the source code itself.
• Managing the Development of Large Software Systems (pdf) by Winston Royce - Paper widely regarded as that which gave birth to the waterfall development lifecycle.
• No Silver Bullet by Frederick Brooks - We’re still looking, but as this paper points out, there is no silver bullet. The essential complexity Brook’s speaks of is largely why we continue to struggle with the same problems today that we did a decade ago.
• On the Criteria to be Used in Decomposing Systems into Modules by David Parnas - Discusses the important design decisions that impact how we modularize our software systems. Important because modularity is coming to the Java platform, and we need to know how to use it effectively.

I’ll give an honorable mention to Design Principles and Design Patterns by Bob Martin, which discusses key principles of object-oriented design. Many of the patterns in the GOF book adhere to these principles.

These essays are sure to provide a positive and lasting influence. But I’m sure there are more. What am I missing? What do you consider the most impactful software development essays? What would you add to this list?

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